Open topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Open topic - Essay Example Democracies can either be direct or representation. In direct democracy, the public is allowed to directly participate in their government. In representative democracies, citizens are always allowed to elect representatives who will represent them in the decision making processes. Despite being popular, democracy cannot be referred to as the best form of governance. This paper aims at proving that democracy has greatly failed as a form of governance. Democracy can be said to be faulty in the sense that it is a form of governance that it is always determined by what the majority wants and not what is good for the country. The question here is what will happen in a situation where the majority is wrong. This will mean that whatever will eventually take place will not be the best thing for the country at large. The majority can always be wrong as a result of misinformation or being fed with completely wrong information by influential figures for their own selfish gain. This will definit ely lead to a governance error that might haunt the country for decades affecting even generations that were not part of the faulty decision making (Diamond and Plattner 184). Democracy can also be said to be a highly expensive form of governance. There are a lot of resources that always go to literal waste during democratic processes. A country always spends a lot of money just trying to make sure that democratic elections are always free, fair, and accurate. Despite all these efforts, there are always complaints about elections not being free and fair. This would raise the question of whether democracy is really governance by the people as is commonly referred to. Other resources also go to waste in the form of resources used during election campaigns. These resources are usually used for the purpose of influencing the choices of the public during political elections. The resource used during the political campaign would rather be used for other activities that are much more profi table and productive. In comparison to a monarchy form of governance, democracy would be definitely unreasonable expensive. Democratic processes can also be said to be faulted by baseless preferences of leaders. Democratic elections involve a battle for supremacy of races, ethnic groups, religions and many other forms of grouping. People will always vote for certain candidates on the basis of their ethnicity, race, religion, and not their capability to be good leaders. This leads to situations where the ethnic, racial, or religious groups with the highest number of citizens always carry the day. The obvious result of such an election is a government that lacks diligence and expertise. As much as one group might pride of being successful during the elections, the consequences of having incompetent leaders will be faced by the whole country( Adler and Weismann 221). Democracy can lead to the imbalanced development in a country. Since the leaders are always elected by the majority, the y will always strive to those who voted for them at the expense of those who did not vote for them. For instance, if a leader was highly voted for in a certain region of the country and rejected in others, they will always tend to favor those who voted for them when it comes to developmental projects. This is mainly due to human nature, which makes it almost impossible for a person to respond to bad deeds with good ones. In the same manner, it will be

Scholarly vs. Popular Media Focused articles Essay

Scholarly vs. Popular Media Focused articles - Essay Example Both these articles provide insight about previous research, for example: Cerny and Janssen have reported a study conducted by Rieger in their own research and Tuller has reported a study that was published in Archieves of Sexual Behavior. Both provide opinion on a specific issue and both are published for example study conducted by Cerny and Jannsen state that bisexual males are highly aroused by bisexual adult content and Tuller states the males are aroused by both the genders. The list of similarities between popular and scholarly articles is quite small but there is a huge difference between these forms of articles. In popular articles different sub categories of an issue and the issue are tried to be explored in a limited amount of space and in case of scholarly articles, specific part of an issue or topic is discussed and in-depth information about that particular topic is provided, for example: the article on the study conducted by Cerny and Janssen is 10 page long and discuss es the sexual arousal patterns of males who have different orientation, where as the article written by Tuller is less than 1000 words long. There is a difference between the audiences of both the articles, popular ones are targeted towards everyone who may be and may not be educated, scholarly ones are targeted towards a specific audience who have an academic background related to the area being studied in the article For example: Cerny and Janssen’s article is for those students who study sexual behavior and the article written by Tuller is for the general population. The terminology and vocabulary that is used in scholarly articles is very technical and can hardy be understood by illiterates and those who do not belong to a specific field of education, for example: Cerny and Janssen have used terminologies such as psychophysiology. In case of popular articles, the vocabulary is easy to understand and any individual can understand the topic that is being

Neurological Disorders In Celiac Patients

Neurological Disorders In Celiac Patients Daniel Mortensen Neurological Disorders In Celiac Patients Introduction Opening: With grains as America’s main food staple, it is no surprise to walk down the aisles of a grocery store and see the numerous amounts of cheaply made processed foods containing grains. Grain gluten is not only contained in the foods we consume, but it is also put in the most not so obvious products. Makeup, teas, yogurt, gum, and the list goes on. This expanse of gluten additives have caused a body of individuals to have Celiac Disease ( CD), an immune disorder that is associated with range of negative health problems. Some of these include gluten ataxia, malabsorption, fatigue,anxiety, migraine and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). For the sake of this argument, we will assume grains( wheat, rye,refined, unrefined, white, ect) as modern modified and will incorporate gluten in its structures. We will be focusing on the symptoms in celiac disease, but it will also pertain to gluten sensitivity (GS) and healthy individuals. This is because some gluten-sensitive or â€Å"h ealthy† individuals may not have gluten intolerance symptoms, therefore they do not think its necessary to get checked. This causes a problem identifying the exact pin point of these gluten related immune problems. Regardless if there is no presence of symptoms, individuals are still a risk for potential autoimmune related problems. As stated, there is a spectrum of health issues related to the ingestion of gluten in this article, and this article will be focusing on the neurological aspect in Celiac patients when eating grains. 1) Gluten and neurological disorders have been studied for over 40 years (Psychiatr) 2) Celiac disease is approximately 4X greater diagnosed than it was 50 years ago, when CD was underdiagnosed (Rubio-Tapia, 2009) Proposition: Consuming wheat gluten leads to neurological effects in Celiac patients Define Terms: Celiac Disease: â€Å"an inborn error of metabolism characterized by the inability to hydrolyze peptides contained in gluten. Gluten is found in wheat, oats and barley. This disease affects adults and young children, who suffer from abdominal distension, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle wasting, extreme lethargy. A characteristic sign is a pale , foul-smelling stool that floats in water because of its high fat content. There may be a secondary lactose intolerance, and it may become necessary to eliminate all milk products form the diet. Most patients respond well to a high-protein, high-calorie, gluten-free diet. Rice and corn are good substitutes for wheat, and any vitamin or mineral deficiencies can be correct with oral preparations. Prognosis is excellent (celiac disease)† Ataxia: â€Å"an impaired ability to coordinate movement, often characterized by a staggering gait and postural imbalance. It can have many causes including lesions in the spinal cord or cerebellum that may be the seuelae of birth trauma, congetnial disorder ,infection, degenerative disorder, neoplasm, toxic substance, stroke or head injury (ataxia† Gluten: â€Å"the insoluble protein constituent of wheat and other grains (rye,oats, and barley(Gluten) Recent research shows the correlation between autoimmune diseases and grains ( Visser, 2009). This paper will further address its controversies. Background: The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) advertises the importance of consuming grains as the base of American diets ( ChooseMyPlate.gov) (1) Modern grains are modified and it is inconsistent with our plant based diets. Humans have not evolved to have grain as the bases of their. There was a possibility of consuming ancient grains with no side effects, but the genetic modification of present grain consist of many gluten particles. These modern grains can lead to negative health effects ( Cordian 1999) Argument I. The controversy being argued is that celiac patients are more likely to develop neurological disorders when eating gluten. Some of these include: 1)gluten onset ataxias;2). schizophrenia; 3) migraines/ severe headaches Gluten increases gluten induced ataxias Many studies have showed a correlation between gluten and gluten induced ataxias in celiac patients. Recent brain scans shed light on why there is a significant difference in the brain formation of CD patients compared to their GFD counterparts. These findings are important because they show evidence of white matter lesions, implicating that gluten particles can travel through the bloodstream, therefore it can affect nearly every part of the body. The findings conclude that the formation of white matter lesions is a result of inflammation in the cerebellum. This inflammation produces antibodies that target purkinje cells. Therefore attacking purkinje cells leads to permanent cell loss, which can only be seen in gluten ataxia patients. These neurons are vital for a healthy functioning nervous system. (citation) Without healthy functioning neurons, this dilemma causes misinterpretation or unreceived messages to the brain. As a result, gluten onset ataxic individuals cannot have full motor control. A gluten free diet has been proven to reduce the incidence of gluten onset ataxia and eliminated white matter lesions in the cerebellum A recent study backed up the The Helsinki claim which proved that there was an overall higher average of ataxia in celiac patients compared to their control group of non -celiac patients. This recent study compared a before and after response of ataxic patients pre and prior to a GFD. Remarkably, they found that just after a year on a GFD, their ataxic patients were symptom free. (Psychiatr Q. 93) Along with axiata,there are other neurological effects that will be further discussed Schizophrenia in CD patients is more likely to increase with in grain consumption One of the first patterns linking the effects of wheat and schizophrenia was noticed during World War II. Psychiatrist F. Curtis Dohan noticed the rate of schizophrenia gradually decreased when there was a food shortage, making American’s main food staple, grains, unavailable, and an increase of schizophrenia when the war ended. Ultimately, grains made their way back into the mainstream diets. Doohans cause-and -effect theory was established when he conducted another test by removing all wheat products from the schizophrenic patient’s meals, without their knowledge( before consent was needed for studies). Four weeks later, he saw that there were fewer schizophrenic symptoms. He then invited wheat back to their diets, and soon the symptoms came back. The table to your upper right shows the dramatic change of schizophrenic symptoms when grains were scarce. Another study done to show the effects of gliadin was in rats. The rats were injected with gliadin in high doses and observed the results. The injection resulted in seizures and unusual behaviors. In my assumption I would conclude that as schizophrenia in rats as a direct result of gluten. (dohan) A recent study conducted by the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) showed that the percentage of schezhprehnnia patients with anti-gliadin antibodies is significantly higher than the overall population of schizophrenic samples. This means that these autoimmune schizophrenics were not diagnosed, but their blood sample contained gluten polypeptides, evidence for GS or CD. Also, those who had a recent onset of symptoms had greater levels of antigliadin antibodies compared to non recent onset group. Studies show CD patients with schizophrenia symptoms are let go 2X as fast when on a GFD (citation) This can bee seen in a 1997 study, where a woman showed signs of schizophrenia and was later diagnosed with CD. She had hallucinations and thought she could fly. Her brain scan showed abnormalities in her left frontal cortex. She was put on a GFD and after six months, there were no traces of abnormalities. This women discontinued her antipsychotics, maintained a GFD and is still symptom free one year after her followup. gluten related disorders could be masked under more subtle symptoms Gluten can increase the rate of migraine/headaches As stated in my previous claim, those who had gluten ataxia has a higher increase of white matter lesions, this also holds true for celiac patients who have frequent migraines/headaches In a study conducted by the ___________ We are aware that current medications or lifestyle must be taken in account before studies begin Some of these medications include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), alcohol consumption, caffeine intake, and contraceptives. These are known to contribute to migraine/ headaches. Medical history is also taken into account, such as recent surgery head, spinal, or neck injuries/surgery. Without proper precaution, results of the studies could be skewed. (citation) A approved research approved by the Animal Ethics Community showed no significant difference of cerebellar change when injecting mice with high doses of glaidian For the first few weeks of the mice life, they were put in a toxic free environment and feed a GFD. The mice were both sexes, and through random selection, 10 mice were injected with a variety gladian in high does ( different gladwin could have different results) while the rest were injected with a saline solution. The mice were tested 1/week with a pass or fail test on coordination and accuracy of stride lengths. By the end of the 25 week study, the rats were put down and their brains were looked. The findings showed no significant difference in the weekly pass/fail test and no significant change in the brain formation of these rats III. Though I concede that there is another influential factor in the prevalence of neurological disorders, I still insist that most of these disorders spawn from eating wheat. Therefore, this is why in many cases, neurological disorders is more prevalent in celiac diagnosed patients. The rat test conducted by Dohan and ______ provided different results,but __ claims are vague. Biologically, rats differ from human beings and therefore they will react different. Like humans, each rat is unique from another and therefore may have different reaction. There could be some bias in the test depending on what the motives are and what major institution was funding these findings. Facts show that 57% of those who have a form of neurological problem will test for the presence of anti-gliadin antibodies, this statement is clearly shown in the tests mentioned above. (Psychiatr) All the claims for the argument stems out of bigger central theme, that gluten in celiac patients can affect the functions and layout of the brain. Whether it is ataxia, schizophrenia, or migraines, gluten particles are capable of traveling through our bloodstream and leaving behind traces of its unwanted presence. Conclusion In conclusion, there has been numerous studies confirming the neurological effects of gluten in Celiac patients. By consuming grains as a CD individual, scientists and psychiatrists have seen an increased risk for axatxia, migrains and schecprhnic symptoms. The symptoms mentioned in this argument can manifest itself into dangerous health conditions if left untreated. It is best for individuals who think they have celiac disease or a gluten sensitivity or even healthy individuals to get tested. Although there will always be studies that back up or deny that neurological symptoms in celiac patients are a result of gluten, one fact is true: celiac disease is not just a â€Å"fad† and therefore one innocent looking muffin cause more harm that you would’ve ever thought. Bibliography vocabulary: â€Å"Gluten.† Mosby’s Medical Dictionary. 8th edition. 2009. Print â€Å"Celiac Disease† Mosby’s Medical Dictionary. 8th edition. 2009. Print â€Å"ataxia† Mosby’s Medical Dictionary. 8th edition. 2009. Print In text Citations: (Psychiatr): Jackson, Jessica R., William W. Eaton, Nicola G. Cascella, Alessio Fasano, and Deanna L. Kelly. Neurologic and Psychiatric Manifestations of Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity. Psychiatric Quarterly 83.1 (2012): 91-102. MEDLINE with Full Text. Web. Sept.-Oct. 214. Psychiatr :Jackson, Jessica R., William W. Eaton, Nicola G. Cascella, Alessio Fasano, and Deanna L. Kelly. Neurologic and Psychiatric Manifestations of Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity. Psychiatric Quarterly 83.1 (2012): 91-102. MEDLINE with Full Text. Web. Sept.-Oct. 214. (Psychiatr, 93): Jackson, Jessica R., William W. Eaton, Nicola G. Cascella, Alessio Fasano, and Deanna L. Kelly. Neurologic and Psychiatric Manifestations of Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity. Psychiatric Quarterly 83.1 (2012): 91-102. MEDLINE with Full Text. Web. Sept.-Oct. 214. 3 4 Dohan FC. Wheat â€Å"consumption† and hospital admissions for schizophrenia during World War LL. A preliminary report. 1996 Jan;18(1):7-10 Dohan FC. Celiac disease and schizophrenia. Brit Med J 1973 July 7;51-52 authors, date, page # ( only cite evidence)

Children: The Innocent Victims of Polygamy Essay -- plural marriage, do

Many people would happily accept an opportunity to have their daily stress reduced by employing help with not only their children but also with daily household responsibilities of cooking and cleaning. Especially in this fragile economic state the average family living in America cannot afford the luxury of hiring a house cleaner, cook or nanny. However, there are polygamists families in America have the abilities of multiple adults contributing to the same household because of the lifestyle choice of having multiple spouses. The extra help comes at a price for woman, by having to share her husband with other woman and raising her children in the difficult and uncommon lifestyle. Polygamy takes a total acceptance and understanding of it by the mothers, in order for polygamy not to have a negative psychological impact on her children. Children are the innocent victims of polygamy; consequently, they grow up witnessing a tense environment filled with their mother’s insecurities and rivalries with the other wives, which sequentially end up harming the child in the end. Furthermore, polygamy can be psychologically damaging to children because of the increased rates of not only welfare fraud, domestic violence, and underage marriages but also child abuse and neglect. â€Å"Polygamy is defined as a marriage in which a spouse of either gender has more than one mate at the same time. Polygamy is considered a valid form of marriage in many countries and communities around the globe† (Al-Krenawi). However, polygamy is illegal in the United States. Those who practice polygamy in America can only be â€Å"legally† married to one spouse; therefore, the subsequent spouses in a polygamist relationship hold a â€Å"singl... ... Palestinian Case." International Journal Of Social Psychiatry 58.1 (2012): 79-95. Academic Search Complete. Web. 20 Nov. 2013. Kilbride, Phillipe Leroy, and Ãâ€"zer, Ali, Fatma Ãâ€"zlem Orhan, and Hasan Çetin Ekerbià §er. "Sociodemographic Variables And Depression In Turkish Women From Polygamous Versus Monogamous Families." Health Care For Women International 34.11 (2013): 1024-1034. Academic Search Complete. Web. 20 Nov. 2013. Page, Douglas. Plural Marriage for Our Times: A Reinvented Option. 2nd ed. California: Praeger, 2013. Print. Polygamy. Histats. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2013. Polyggamy FAQs. Polygamy.org. TM, n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2013. White, Ryan. â€Å"Two Sides Of Polygamy.† Utah Law Review 2009.2 (2009): 495-502. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10 Nov. 2013. Children: The Innocent Victims of Polygamy Essay -- plural marriage, do Many people would happily accept an opportunity to have their daily stress reduced by employing help with not only their children but also with daily household responsibilities of cooking and cleaning. Especially in this fragile economic state the average family living in America cannot afford the luxury of hiring a house cleaner, cook or nanny. However, there are polygamists families in America have the abilities of multiple adults contributing to the same household because of the lifestyle choice of having multiple spouses. The extra help comes at a price for woman, by having to share her husband with other woman and raising her children in the difficult and uncommon lifestyle. Polygamy takes a total acceptance and understanding of it by the mothers, in order for polygamy not to have a negative psychological impact on her children. Children are the innocent victims of polygamy; consequently, they grow up witnessing a tense environment filled with their mother’s insecurities and rivalries with the other wives, which sequentially end up harming the child in the end. Furthermore, polygamy can be psychologically damaging to children because of the increased rates of not only welfare fraud, domestic violence, and underage marriages but also child abuse and neglect. â€Å"Polygamy is defined as a marriage in which a spouse of either gender has more than one mate at the same time. Polygamy is considered a valid form of marriage in many countries and communities around the globe† (Al-Krenawi). However, polygamy is illegal in the United States. Those who practice polygamy in America can only be â€Å"legally† married to one spouse; therefore, the subsequent spouses in a polygamist relationship hold a â€Å"singl... ... Palestinian Case." International Journal Of Social Psychiatry 58.1 (2012): 79-95. Academic Search Complete. Web. 20 Nov. 2013. Kilbride, Phillipe Leroy, and Ãâ€"zer, Ali, Fatma Ãâ€"zlem Orhan, and Hasan Çetin Ekerbià §er. "Sociodemographic Variables And Depression In Turkish Women From Polygamous Versus Monogamous Families." Health Care For Women International 34.11 (2013): 1024-1034. Academic Search Complete. Web. 20 Nov. 2013. Page, Douglas. Plural Marriage for Our Times: A Reinvented Option. 2nd ed. California: Praeger, 2013. Print. Polygamy. Histats. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2013. Polyggamy FAQs. Polygamy.org. TM, n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2013. White, Ryan. â€Å"Two Sides Of Polygamy.† Utah Law Review 2009.2 (2009): 495-502. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10 Nov. 2013.

Russell-Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge

Pg1Pg1 KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE I53 Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description Bertrand Russell Russell, Bertrand (1917). Knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 1910-1911. Reprinted in his his Mysticism and Logic (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. : 1917). Reprinted Totowa, New Jersey: Barnes & Noble Books, 1951, pp. 152-167. Pagination here matches the latter. ) THE object of the following paper is to consider what it is that we know in cases where we know propositions about ‘the so-and-so' without knowing who or what the so-and-so is.For example, I know that the candidate who gets most votes will be elected, though I do not know who is the candidate who will get most votes. The problem I wish to consider is: What do we know in these cases, where the subject is merely described ? I have considered this problem elsewhere1 from a purely logical point of view; but in what follows I wish to consider the questio n in relation to theory of knowledge as well as in relation to logic, and in view of the above-mentioned logical discussions, I shall in this paper make the logical portion as brief as possible.In order to make clear the antithesis between ‘acquaintance' and ‘description', I shall first of all try to explain what I mean by ‘acquain- tance'. I say that I am acquainted with an object when I have a direct cognitive relation to that object, i. e. when I am directly aware of the object itself. When I speak of a cognitive relation here, I do not mean the sort of relation which constitutes judgment, but the sort which constitutes presentation. In fact, I think the relation of subject and object which I call acquaintance is simply the converse of the relation of object and subject which constitutes presentation.That is, to say that S has acquaintance with O is essentially the same thing as to say that O is presented to S. But the associations and natural extensions of the word acquaintance are different from those of the word presentation. To begin with, as in most cognitive words, it is natural to say that I am acquainted with an object even at moments when it is not actually before my mind, provided it has been before my mind, and will be again whenever occasion arises. This is the same sense in which I am said to know that 2+2=4 even when I am thinking of something else. In the second place, the word See references later. acquaintance is designed to emphasize, more than the word presen- tation, the relational character of the fact with which we are concerned. There is, to my mind, a danger that, in speaking of presentation, we may so emphasize the object as to lose sight of the subject. The result of this is either to lead to the view that there is no subject, whence we arrive at materialism; or to lead to the view that what is presented is part of the subject, whence we arrive at idealism, and should arrive at solipsism but for the most desperate contortions.Now I wish to preserve the dualism of subject and object in my terminology, because this dualism seems to me a fundamental fact concerning cognition. Hence I prefer the word acquaintance, because it emphasizes the need of a subject which is acquainted. When we ask what are the kinds of objects with which we are acquainted, the first and most obvious example is sense-data. When I see a colour or hear a noise, I have direct acquaintance with the colour or the noise. The sense-datum with which I am acquainted in these cases is generally, if not always, complex.This is particularly obvious in the case of sight. I do not mean, of course, merely that the supposed physical object is complex, but that the direct sensible object is complex and contains parts with spatial relations. Whether it is possible to be aware of a complex without being aware of its constituents is not an easy question, but on the whole it would seem that there is no reason why it should not be possible. T his question arises in an acute form in connection with self-consciousness, which we must now briefly consider.In introspection, we seem to be immediately aware of varying complexes, consisting of objects in various cognitive and conative relations to ourselves. When I see the sun, it often happens that I am aware of my seeing the sun, in addition to being aware of the sun; and when I desire food, it often happens that I am aware of my desire for food. But it is hard to discover any state of mind in which I am aware of myself alone, as opposed to a complex of which I am a constituent. The question of the nature of self-consciousness is too large, and too slightly connected with our subject, to be argued at length here.It is difficult, but probably not impossible, to account for plain facts if we assume that we do not have acquaintance with ourselves. It is plain that we are not only acquainted with the complex ‘Self-acquainted-with-A', but we also know the proposition ‘I am acquainted with A'. Now here the complex has been analysed, and if ‘I' does not stand for something which is a direct object of acquaintance, we shall have to suppose that ‘I' is something known by description. If we wished to maintain the view that there is noPg2Pg2 154 MYSTICISM AND LOGIC acquaintance with Self, we might argue as follows: We are acquainted with acquaintance, and we know that it is a relation. Also we are acquainted with a complex in which we perceive that acquaintance is the relating relation. Hence we know that this complex must have a constituent which is that which is acquainted, i. e. must have a subject- term as well as an object-term. This subject-term we define as ‘I'. Thus ‘I' means ‘the subject-term in awarenesses of which / am aware'.But as a definition this cannot be regarded as a happy effort. It would seem necessary, therefore, either to suppose that I am acquainted with myself, and that ‘I', therefore, requires no definition, being merely the proper name of a certain object, or to find some other analysis of self- consciousness. Thus self-consciousness cannot be regarded as throwing light on the question whether we can know a complex without knowing its constituents. This question, however, is not important for our present purposes, and I hall therefore not discuss it further. The awarenesses we have considered so far have all been aware- nesses of particular existents, and might all in a large sense be called sense-data. For, from the point of view of theory of knowledge, introspective knowledge is exactly on a level with knowledge derived from sight or hearing. But, in addition to awareness of the above kind of objects, which may be called awareness of particulars, we have also (though not quite in the same sense) what may be called awareness of universals.Awareness of universals is called conceiving, and a uni- versal of which we are aware is called a concept. Not only are we aware of particular yellows, but if we have seen a sufficient number of yellows and have sufficient intelligence, we are aware of the universal yellow; this universal is the subject in such judgments as ‘yellow differs from blue' or ‘yellow resembles blue less than green does'. And the universal yellow is the predicate in such judgments as ‘this is yellow', where ‘this' is a particular sense-datum.And universal relations, too, are objects of awarenesses; up and down, before and after, resemblance, desire, awareness itself, and so on, would seem to be all of them objects of which we can be aware. In regard to relations, it might be urged that we are never aware of the universal relation itself, but only of complexes in which it is a constituent. For example, it may be said that we do not know directly such a relation as before, though we understand such a proposition as ‘this is before that', and may be directly aware of such a complex as ‘this being before that'.This view, however, is difficult to reconcile with the fact that we often know propositions in which KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE I55 the relation is the subject, or in which the relata are not definite given objects, but ‘anything'. For example, we know that if one thing is before another, and the other before a third, then the first is before the third; and here the things concerned are not definite things, but ‘anything'. It is hard to see how we could know such a fact about ‘before' unless we were acquainted with ‘before', and not merely with actual particular cases of ne given object being before another given object. And more directly: A judgment such as ‘this is before that', where this judgment is derived from awareness of a complex, constitutes an analysis, and we should not understand the analysis if we were not acquainted with the meaning of the terms employed. Thus we must suppose that we are acquainted with the meaning of ‘before' , and not merely with instances of it. There are thus at least two sorts of objects of which we are aware, namely, particulars and universals.Among particulars I include all existents, and all complexes of which one or more constituents are existents, such as this-before-that, this-above-that, the-yellowness-of- this. Among universals I include all objects of which no particular is a constituent. Thus the disjunction ‘universal-particular' includes all objects. We might also call it the disjunction ‘abstract concrete'. It is not quite parallel with the opposition ‘concept-percept', because things remembered or imagined belong with particulars, but can hardly be called percepts. On the other hand, universals with which we are acquainted may be identified with concepts. ) It will be seen that among the objects with which we are acquainted are not included physical objects (as opposed to sense-data), nor other people's minds. These things are known to us by what I cal l ‘knowledge by description', which we must now consider. By a ‘description' I mean any phrase of the form ‘a so-and-so' or ‘the so-and-do'. A phrase of the form ‘a so-and-so' I shall call an ‘ambiguous' description; a phrase of the form ‘the so-and-do' (in the singular) I shall call a ‘definite' description.Thus ‘a man' is an ambiguous description, and ‘the man with the iron mask' is a definite description. There are various problems connected with ambiguous descriptions, but I pass them by, since they do not directly concern the matter I wish to discuss. What I wish to discuss is the nature of our knowledge concerning objects in cases where we know that there is an object answering to a definite description, though we are not acquainted with any such object. This is a matter which is concerned exclusively with definite descriptions.I shall, therefore, in the sequel, speak simply of ‘descriptions' when I mean Pg3Pg3 I56MYSTICISM AND LOGIC ‘definite descriptions'. Thus a description will mean any phrase of the form ‘the so-and-so' in the singular. I shall say that an object is ‘known by description' when we know that it is ‘the so-and-so', i. e. when we know that there is one object, and no more, having a certain property; and it will generally be implied that we do not have knowledge of the same object by acquaintance.We know that the man with the iron mask existed, and many propositions are known about him; but we do not know who he was. We know that the candidate who gets most votes will be elected, and in this case we are very likely also acquainted (in the only sense in which one can be acquainted with someone else) with the man who is, in fact, the candidate who will get most votes, but we do not know which of the candidates he is, i. e. we do not know any proposition of the form ‘A is the candidate who will get most votes' where A is one of the candidates by name.We shall say that we have â€Å"merely descriptive knowledge' of the so-and-so when, although we know that the so-and-so exists, and although we may possibly be acquainted with the object which is, in fact, the so-and-so, yet we do not know any proposition ‘a is the so- and-so', where a is something with which we are acquainted. When we say ‘the so-and-so exists', we mean that there is just one object which is the so-and-so. The proposition ‘a is the so-and-so' means that a has the property so-and-so, and nothing else has. Sir Joseph Larmor is the Unionist candidate' means ‘Sir Joseph Larmor is a Unionist candidate, and no one else is. ‘ ‘The Unionist candidate exists' means ‘someone is a Unionist candidate, and no one else is. ‘ Thus, when we are acquainted with an object which we know to be the so- and-so, we know that the so-and-so exists, but we may know that the so-and-so exists when we are not acquainted with any object whi ch we know to be the so-and-so, and even when we are not acquainted with any object which, in fact, is the so-and-so. Common words, even proper names, are usually really descriptions.That is to say, the thought in the mind of a person using a proper name correctly can generally only be expressed explicitly if we replace the proper name by a description. Moreover, the description required to express the thought will vary for different people, or for the same person at different times. The only thing constant (so long as the name is rightly used) is the object to which the name applies. But so long as this remains constant, the particular description involved usually makes no difference to the truth or falsehood of the proposition in which the name appears.Let us take some illustrations. Suppose some statement made KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE I57 about Bismarck. Assuming that there is such a thing as direct acquaintance with oneself, Bismarck himself might have used his name directly to designate the particular person with whom he was acquainted. In this case, if he made a judgment about himself, he himself might be a constituent of the judgment. Here the proper name has the direct use which it always wishes to have, as simply standing for a certain object, and not for a description of the object.But if a person who knew Bismarck made a judgment about him, the case is different. What this person was acquainted with were certain sense-data which he connected (rightly, we will suppose) with Bismarck's body. His body as a physical object, and still more his mind, were only known as the body and the mind connected with these sense-data. That is, they were known by description. It is, of course, very much a matter of chance which characteristics of a man's appearance will come into a friend's mind when he thinks of him; thus the description actually in the friend's mind is accidental.The essential point is that he knows that the various descriptions all apply to the sa me entity, in spite of not being acquainted with the entity in question. When we, who did not know Bismarck, make a judgment about him, the description in our minds will probably be some more or less vague mass of historical knowledge—? far more, in most cases, than is required to identify him. But, for the sake of illustration, let us assume that we think of him as ‘the first Chancellor of the German Empire'. Here all the words are abstract except ‘German'.The word ‘German' will again have different meanings for different people. To some it will recall travels in Germany, to some the look of Germany on the map, and so on. But if we are to obtain a description which we know to be applicable, we shall be compelled, at some point, to bring in a reference to a particular with which we are acquainted. Such reference is involved in any mention of past, present, and future (as opposed to definite dates), or of here and there, or of what others have told us.Thus it would seem that, in some way or other, a description known to be applicable to a particular must involve some reference to a particular with which we are acquainted, if our knowledge about the thing described is not to be merely what follows logically from the description. For example, ‘the most long-lived of men' is a description which must apply to some man, but we can make no judgments concerning this man which involve knowledge about him beyond what the description gives.If, however, we say, ‘the first Chancellor of the German Empire was an astute diplomatist', we can only be assured Pg4Pg4 158MYSTICISM AND LOGIC of the truth of our judgment in virtue of something with which we are acquainted—? usually a testimony heard or read. Considered psychologically, apart from the information we convey to others, apart from the fact about the actual Bismarck, which gives importance to our judgment, the thought we really have contains the one or more particulars involve d, and otherwise consists wholly of concepts.All names of places—? London, England, Europe, the earth, the Solar System—? similarly involve, when used, descriptions which start from some one or more particulars with which we are acquainted. I suspect that even the Universe, as considered by metaphysics, involves such a connection with particulars. In logic, on the contrary, where we are concerned not merely with what does exist, but with whatever might or could exist or be, no reference to actual particulars is involved.It would seem that, when we make a statement about something only known by description, we often intend to make our statement, not in the form involving the description, but about the actual thing described. That is to say, when we say anything about Bismarck, we should like, if we could, to make the judgment which Bismarck alone can make, namely, the judgment of which he himself is a constituent. In this we are necessarily defeated, since the actual Bi smarck is unknown to us.But we know that there is an object B called Bismarck, and that B was an astute diplomatist. We can thus describe the proposition we should like to affirm, namely, ‘B was an astute diplomatist', where B is the object which was Bismarck. What enables us to communicate in spite of the varying descriptions we employ is that we know there is a true proposition concerning the actual Bismarck, and that, however we may vary the description (so long as the description is correct), the proposition described is still the same.This proposition, which is described and is known to be true, is what interests us; but we are not acquainted with the proposition itself, and do not know it, though we know it is true. It will be seen that there are various stages in the removal from acquaintance with particulars: there is Bismarck to people who knew him, Bismarck to those who only know of him through history, the man with the iron mask, the longest-lived of men. These are progressively further removed from acquaintance with particulars, and there is a similar hierarchy in the region of universals.Many universals, like many particulars, are only known to us by description. But here, as in the case of particulars, knowledge concerning what is known by description is ultimately reducible to knowledge concerning what is known by acquaintance. KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE 159 The fundamental epistemological principle in the analysis of propositions containing descriptions is this: Every proposition which we can understand must be composed wholly of constituents with which we are acquainted.From what has been said already, it will be plain why I advocate this principle, and how I propose to meet the case of propositions which at first sight contravene it. Let us begin with the reasons for supposing the principle true. The chief reason for supposing the principle true is that it seems scarcely possible to believe that we can make a judgment or entertain a supp osition without knowing what it is that we are judging or supposing about. If we make a judgment about (say) Julius Caesar, it is plain that the actual person who was Julius Caesar is not a constituent of the judgment.But before going further, it may be well to explain what I mean when I say that this or that is a constituent of a judgment, or of a proposition which we understand. To begin with judgments: a judgment, as an occurrence, I take to be a relation of a mind to several entities, namely, the entities which compose what is judged. If, e. g. I judge that A loves B, the judgment as an event consists in the existence, at a certain moment, of a specific four-term relation, called judging, between me and A and love and B.That is to say, at the time when I judge, there is a certain complex whose terms are myself and A and love and B, and whose relating relation is judging. My reasons for this view have been set forth elsewhere,1 and I shall not repeat them here. Assuming this view of judgment, the constituents of the judgment are simply the constituents of the complex which is the judgment- Thus, in the above case, the constituents are myself and A and love and B and judging. But myself and judging are constituents shared by all my judgments; thus the distinctive constituents of the particular judgment in question are A and love and B.Coming now to what is meant by ‘understanding a proposition', I should say that there is another relation possible between me and A and love and B, which is called my supposing that A loves B. 2 When we can suppose that A loves B, we ‘understand the proposition' A loves B. Thus we often understand a proposition in cases where we have not enough knowledge to make a judgment. 1 Philosophical Essays, ‘The Nature of Truth. ‘ I have been persuaded by Mr Wittgenstein that this theory is somewhat unduly simple, but the modification which I believe it to require does not affect the above argument [1917]. Cf. Mei nong, Ueber Annahmen, passim. I formerly supposed, contrary to Meinong's view, that the relationship of supposing might be merely that of presentation. In this view I now think I was mistaken, and Meinong is right. But my present view depends upon the theory that both in judgment and in assumption there is no single Objective, but the several constituents of the judgment or asaumption are in a many-term relation to the mind. Pg5Pg5 160MYSTICISM AND LOGIC Supposing, like judging, is a many-term relation, of which a mind is one term.The other terms of the relation are called the constituents of the proposition supposed. Thus the principle which I enunciated may be re-stated as follows: Whenever a relation of supposing or judging occurs, the terms to which the supposing or judging mind is related by the relation of supposing or judging must be terms with which the mind in question is acquainted. This is merely to say that we cannot make a judgment or a supposition without knowing what it is that we are making our judgment or supposition about.It seems to me that the truth of this principle is evident as soon as the principle is understood; I shall, therefore, in what follows, assume the principle, and use it as a guide in analysing judgments that contain descriptions. Returning now to Julius Caesar, I assume that it will be admitted that he himself is not a constituent of any judgment which I can make. But at this point it is necessary to examine the view that judgments are composed of something called ‘ideas', and that it is the ‘idea' of Julius Caesar that is a constituent of my judgment.I believe the plausibility of this view rests upon a failure to form a right theory of descriptions. We may mean by my ‘idea' of Julius Caesar the things that I know about him, e. g. that he conquered Gaul, was assassinated on the Ides of March, and is a plague to schoolboys. Now I am admitting, and indeed contending, that in order to discover what is actually in my mind when I judge about Julius Caesar, we must substitute for the proper name a description made up of some of the things I know about him. (A description which will often serve to express my thought is ‘the man whose name wasJulius Caesar. ‘ For whatever else I may have forgotten about him, it is plain that when I mention him I have not forgotten that that was his name. ) But although I think the theory that judgments consist of ideas may have been suggested in some such way, yet I think the theory itself is fundamentally mistaken. The view seems to be that there is some mental existent which may be called the ‘idea' of something outside the mind of the person who has the idea, and that, since judgment is a mental event, its constituents must be constituents of the mind of the person judging.But in this view ideas become a veil between us and outside things—? we never really, in knowledge, attain to the things we are supposed to be knowing about, but only to the ideas of those things. The relation of mind, idea, and object, on this view, is utterly obscure, and, so far as I can see, nothing discoverable by inspection warrants the intrusion of the idea between the mind and the object. I suspect that the view ii fostered by the dislike of relations, and that it is felt the mindKNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCEl6l could not know objects unless there were something ‘in' the mind which could be called the state of knowing the object. Such a view, however, leads at once to a vicious endless regress, since the relation of idea to object will have to be explained by supposing that the idea itself has an idea of the object, and so on ad infinitum. I therefore see no reason to believe that, when we are acquainted with an object, there is in us something which can be called the ‘idea' of the object.On the contrary, I hold that acquaintance is wholly a relation, not demanding any such constituent of the mind as is supposed by advocates of ‘ideas'. This is, of course, a large question, and one which would take us far from our subject if it were adequately discussed. I therefore content myself with the above indications, and with the corollary that, in judging, the actual objects concerning which we judge, rather than any supposed purely mental entities, are constituents of the complex which is the judgment.When, therefore, I say that we must substitute for ‘Julius Caesar' some description of Julius Caesar, in order to discover the meaning of a judgment nominally about him, I am not saying that we must substitute an idea. Suppose our description is ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar'. Let our judgment be ‘Julius Caesar was assassinated'. Then it becomes ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar was assassinated'. Here Julius Caesar is a noise or shape with which we are acquainted, and all the other constituents of the judgment (neglecting the tense in ‘was') are concepts with whic h we are acquainted.Thus our judgment is wholly reduced to constituents with which we are acquainted, but Julius Caesar himself has ceased to be a constituent of our judgment. This, however, requires a proviso, to be further explained shortly, namely, that ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar' must not, as a whole, be a constituent of our judgment, that is to say, this phrase must not, as a whole, have a meaning which enters into the judgment. Any right analysis of the judgment, therefore, must break up this phrase, and not treat it as a subordinate complex which is part of the judgment.The judgment ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar was assassinated' may be interpreted as meaning ‘one and only one man was called Julius Caesar, and that one was assassinated'. Here it is plain that there is no constituent corresponding to the phrase, ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar'. Thus there is no reason to regard this phrase as expressing a constituent of the jud gment, and we have seen that this phrase must be broken up if we are to be acquainted with all the constituents of the judgment. This conclusion, which we have reached from considerations concerned with the theory of knowledge, is also forced uponPg6Pg6 162MYSTICISM AND LOGIC us by logical considerations, which must now be briefly reviewed. It is common to distinguish two aspects, meaning and denotation, in such phrases as ‘the author of Waverley'. The meaning will be a certain complex} consisting (at least) of authorship and Waverley with some relation] the denotation will be Scott. Similarly ‘feather-less bipeds' will have a complex meaning, containing as constituents the presence of two feet and the absence of feathers, while its denotation will be the class of men.Thus when we say ‘Scott is the author of Waverley' or ‘men are the same as featherless bipeds', we are asserting an identity of denotation, and this assertion is worth making because of the dive rsity of meaning. 1 I believe that the duality of meaning and denotation, though capable of a true interpretation, is misleading if taken as fundamental. The denotation, I believe, is not a constituent of the proposition, except in the case of proper names, i. e. of words which do not assign a property to an object, but merely and solely name it.And I should hold further that, in this sense, there are only two words which are strictly proper names of particulars, namely, T and ‘this. ‘2 One reason for not believing the denotation to be a constituent of the proposition is that we may know the proposition even when we are not acquainted with the denotation. The proposition ‘the author of Waverley is a novelist' was known to people who did not know that ‘the author of Waverley' denoted Scott. This reason has been already sufficiently emphasized.A second reason is that propositions concerning ‘the so-and-so' are possible even when ‘the so-and-so' has no denotation. Take, e. g. ‘the golden mountain does not exist' or ‘the round square is self- contradictory'. If we are to preserve the duality of meaning and denotation, we have to say, with Meinong, that there are such objects as the golden mountain and the round square, although these objects do not have being. We even have to admit that the existent round square is existent, but does not exist. 3 Meinong does not regard this as a contradition, but I fail to see that it is not one.Indeed, it seems to me evident that the judgment ‘there is no such object as the round square' does not presuppose that there is such an object. If this is admitted, however, we are led to the conclusion that, by parity of form, no judgment concerning ‘the so-and-so' actually involves the so-and-so as a constituent. 1 This view has been recently advocated by Miss E. E. C. Jones. ‘A New Law of Thought and its Implications,' Mind, January, 1911. * I should now exclude ‘ I' from proper names in the strict sense, and retain only ‘this' [1917]. †¢? Meinongj Ueber Annahmen, 2nd ed. , Leipzig, 1910, p. 141. KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE 163Miss Jones1 contends that there is no difficulty in admitting contradictory predicates concerning such an object as ‘the present King of France', on the ground that this object is in itself contradictory. Now it might, of course, be argued that this object, unlike the round square, is not self-contradictory, but merely non-existent. This, however, would not go to the root of the matter. The real objection to such an argument is that the law of contradiction ought not to be stated in the traditional form ‘A is not both B and not B', but in the form ‘no proposition is both true and false*.The traditional form only applies to certain propositions, namely, to those which attribute a predicate to a subject. When the law is stated of propositions, instead of being stated concerning subjects and pred icates it is at once evident that propositions about the present King of France or the round square can form no exception, but are just as incapable of being both true and false as other propositions. Miss Jones2 argues that ‘Scott is the author of Waverley' asserts identity of denotation between Scott and the author of Waverley.But there is some difficulty in choosing among alternative meanings of this contention. In the first place, it should be observed that the author of Waverley is not a mere name, like Scott. Scott is merely a noise or shape conventionally used to designate a certain person; it gives us no information about that person, and has nothing that can be called meaning as opposed to denotation. (I neglect the fact, considered above, that even proper names, as a rule, really stand for descriptions. But the author of Waverley is not merely conventionally a name for Scott; the element of mere convention belongs here to the separate words, the and author and of and Waverley. Given what these words stand for, the author of Waverley is no longer arbitrary. When it is said that Scott is the author of Waverley, we are not stating that these are two names for one man, as we should be if we said ‘Scott is Sir Walter'. A man's name is what he is called, but however much Scott had been called the author of Waverley, that would not have made im be the author; it was necessary for him actually to write Waverley, which was a fact having nothing to do with names. If, then, we are asserting identity of denotation, we must not mean by denotation the mere relation of a name to the thing named. In fact, it would be nearer to the truth to say that the meaning of ‘Scott' is the denotation of ‘the author of Waverley'. The relation of ‘Scott* to Scott is that ‘Scott' means Scott, just as the relation of ‘author' to the concept which is so called is that ‘author' means this concept. 1 Mind, July, 1910, p. 80. ‘ Mind , July, 1910. p. 379. Pg7Pg7 164MYSTICISM AND LOGIC Thus if we distinguish meaning and denotation in ‘the author of Waverley', we shall have to say that ‘Scott' has meaning but not denotation. Also when we say ‘Scott is the author of Waverley', the meaning of ‘the author of Waverley' is relevant to our assertion. For if the denotation alone were relevant, any other phrase with the same denotation would give the same proposition. Thus ‘Scott is the author of Marmion' would be the same proposition as ‘Scott is the author of Waverley'.But this is plainly not the case, since from the first we learn that Scott wrote Marmion and from the second we learn that he wrote Waverley, but the first tells us nothing about Waverley and the second nothing about Marmion. Hence the meaning of ‘the author of Waverley' as opposed to the denotation, is certainly relevant to ‘Scott is the author of Waverley'. We have thus agreed that ‘the author of Wav erley' is not a mere name, and that its meaning is relevant in propositions in which it occurs.Thus if we are to say, as Miss Jones does, that ‘Scott is the author of Waverley' asserts an identity of denotation, we must regard the denotation of ‘the author of Waverley' as the denotation of what is meant by ‘the author of Waverley'. Let us call the meaning of ‘the author of Waverley' M. Thus M is what ‘the author of Waverley' means. Then we are to suppose that ‘Scott is the author of Waverley' means ‘Scott is the denotation of M But here we are explaining our proposition by another of the same form, and thus we have made no progress towards a real explanation. The denotation of M,' like ‘the author of Waverley', has both meaning and denotation, on the theory we are examining. If we call its meaning M', our proposition becomes ‘Scott is the denotation of M†. But this leads at once to an endless regress. Thus the attempt to re gard our proposition as asserting identity of denotation breaks down, and it becomes imperative to find some other analysis. When this analysis has been completed, we shall be able to reinterpret the phrase ‘identity of denotation', which remains obscure so long as it is taken as fundamental.The first point to observe is that, in any proposition about ‘the author of Waverley', provided Scott is not explicitly mentioned, the denotation itself, i. e. Scott, does not occur, but only the concept of denotation, which will be represented by a variable. Suppose we say ‘the author of Waverley was the author of Marmion', we are certainly not saying that both were Scott—? we may have forgotten that there was such a person as Scott. We are saying that there is some man who was the author of Waverley and the author of Marmion.That Is to say, there is someone who wrote Waverley and Marmion, and no one else wrote them. Thus the identity is that of a variable, i. e. of KNO WLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE 165 an identifiable subject, ‘someone'. This is why we can understand propositions about ‘the author of Waverley', without knowing who he was. When we say ‘the author of Waverley was a poet', we mean ‘one and only one man wrote Waverley, and he was a poet'; when we say ‘the author of Waverley was Scott' we mean ‘one and only one man wrote Waverley, and he was Scott'. Here the identity is between a variable, i. . an indeterminate subject (‘he'), and Scott; ‘the author of Waverley' has been analysed away, and no longer appears as a constituent of the proposition. 1 The reason why it is imperative to analyse away the phrase, ‘the author of Waverley' may be stated as follows. It is plain that when we say ‘the author of Waverley is the author of Marmion', the is expresses identity. We have seen also that the common denotation, namely Scott, is not a constituent of this proposition, while the meanings (if a ny) of ‘the author of Waverley' and ‘the author of Marmion' are not identical.We have seen also that, in any sense in which the meaning of a word is a constituent of a proposition in whose verbal expression the word occurs, ‘Scott' means the actual man Scott, in the same sense (so far as concerns our present discussion) in which ‘author' means a certain universal. Thus, if ‘the author of Waverley' were a subordinate complex in the above proposition, its meaning would have to be what was said to be identical with the meaning of ‘the author of Marmion'.This is plainly not the case; and the only escape is to say that ‘the author of Waverley' does not, by itself, have a meaning, though phrases of which it is part do have a meaning. That is, in a right analysis of the above proposition, ‘the author of Waverley' must disappear. This is effected when the above proposition is analysed as meaning: ‘Some one wrote Waverley and no one else did, and that someone also wrote Marmion and no one else did. ‘ This may be more simply expressed by saying that the propositional function ‘x wrote Waverley and Marmion, and no one else did' is capable of truth, i. e. ome value of x makes it true, but no other value does. Thus the true subject of our judgment is a propositional function, i. e. a complex containing an undetermined constituent, and becoming a proposition as soon as this constituent is determined. We may now define the denotation of a phrase. If we know that the proposition ‘a is the so-and-so' is true, i. e. that a is so-and-so and nothing else is, we call a the denotation of the phrase ‘the so- 1 The theory which I am advocating is set forth fully, with the logical grounds in its favour, in Principia Mathematica, Vol. I, Introduction, Chap.Ill; also, less fully, in Mind, October, 1905. Pg8Pg8 166 MYSTICISM AND LOGIC and-so'. A very great many of the propositions we naturally make about Ã¢â‚¬Ë œthe so-and-so' will remain true or remain false if we substitute a for ‘the so-and-so', where a is the denotation of ‘the so-and-so'. Such propositions will also remain true or remain false if we substitute for ‘the so-and-so' any other phrase having the same denotation. Hence, as practical men, we become interested in the denotation more than in the description, since the denotation decides as to the truth or falsehood of so many statements in which the description occurs.Moreover, as we saw earlier in considering the relations of description and acquaintance, we often wish to reach the denotation, and are only hindered by lack of acquaintance: in such cases the description is merely the means we employ to get as near as possible to the denotation. Hence it naturally comes to be supposed that the denotation is part of the proposition in which the description occurs. But we have seen, both on logical and on epistemological grounds, that this is an error.The actual object (if any) which is the denotation is not (unless it is explicitly mentioned) a constituent of propositions in which descriptions occur; and this is the reason why, in order to understand such propositions, we need acquaintance with the constituents of the description, but do not need acquaintance with its denotation. The first result of analysis, when applied to propositions whose grammatical subject is ‘the so-and-so', is to substitute a variable as subject; i. e. we obtain a proposition of the form: ‘There is something which alone is so-and-so, and that something is such-and-such. The further analysis of propositions concerning ‘the so-and-so' is thus merged in the problem of the nature of the variable, i. e. of the meanings of some, any, and all. This is a difficult problem, concerning which I do not intend to say anything at present. To sum up our whole discussion: We began by distinguishing two sorts of knowledge of objects, namely, knowledge by acquain tance and knowledge by description. Of these it is only the former that brings the object itself before the mind. We have acquaintance with sense-data, with many universals, and possibly with ourselves, but not with physical objects or other minds.We have descriptive knowledge of an object when we know that it is the object having some property or properties with which we are acquainted; that is so say, when we know that the property or properties in question belong to one object and no more, we are said to have knowledge of that one object by description, whether or not we are acquainted with the object. Our knowledge of physical objects and of other minds is only knowledge by description, the descriptions involved being usually KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE167 such as involve sense-data.All propositions intelligible to us, whether or not they primarily concern things only known to us by description, are composed wholly of constituents with which we are acquainted, for a constituent wi th which we are not acquainted is unintelligible to us. A judgment, we found, is not composed of mental constituents called ‘ideas', but consists of an occurrence whose constituents are a mind1 and certain objects, particulars or universals. (One at least must be a universal. ) When a judgment is rightly analysed, the objects which are constituents of it must all be objects with which the mind which is a constituent of it is acquainted.This conclusion forces us to analyse descriptive phrases occurring in propositions, and to say that the objects denoted by such phrases are not constituents of judgments in which such phrases occur (unless these objects are explicitly mentioned). This leads us to the view (recommended also on purely logical grounds) that when we say ‘the author of Marmion was the author of Waverley', Scott himself is not a constituent of our judgement, and that the judgment cannot be explained by saying that it affirms identity of denotation with diversity of meaning. It also, plainly, does not assert identity of meaning.Such judgments, therefore, can only be analysed by breaking up the descriptive phrases, introducing a variable, and making prepositional functions the ultimate subjects. In fact, ‘the so-and-so is such-and-such' will mean that fx is so-and-so and nothing else is, and x is such-and-such' is capable of truth. The analysis of such judgments involves many fresh problems, but the discussion of these problems is not undertaken in the present paper. 11 use this phrase merely to denote the something psychological which enters into judgment, without intending to prejudge the question as to what this

Coca-Cola Mission Statement – Strategic Management

I think The Coca-Cola Company has done an exceptional job with defining their mission, vision, values and goals. These items may not be listed under the appropriate titles based on the background information present in this module but the information has been provided within the titles that are listed on the company’s website. For example, the mission statement is listed under the focus on the market statement and the vision statement is listed under the mission statement. I feel as if this company has provided me with the direction of this company based on their mission statement. I am inspired by the vision of this company. The values of this company are values that represent a successful company. This company has set goals that will allow this company continued world success.This executive summary will start with introduction of The Coca-Cola Company. Second, I will identify The Coca-Cola Company’s mission, vision, values and goals. Third, I will critically evaluate each element for this company and show how it is in line with the background information for this module and that no changes are recommended or required. Fourth, I will show how each of the elements account for the stakeholder’s interests. Fifth, I will conclude this executive summary.IntroductionThe Coca-Cola Company has been around for over one hundred years and their manufactured goods are sold all around the world. A company does not survive for over one hundred years without an incredible map providing direction. This map is the company’s mission, vision, values and goals. Company’s mission, vision, values and goals (all taken directly from The Coca-Cola Company’s Website)Mission:Inspire creativity, passion, optimism and funVision:To refresh the world†¦.To inspire moments of optimism and happiness†¦.To create value and make a difference†¦.ValuesPeople: Be a great place to work where people are inspired to be the best they can be.Portfo lio: Bring to the world a portfolio of quality beverage brands that anticipate and satisfy people’s desires and needs.Partners: Nurture a winning network of customers and suppliers, together we create mutual, enduring value.Planet: Be a responsible citizen that makes a difference by helping build and support sustainable communities.Profit: Maximize long-term return to shareowners while being mindful of our overall responsibilities.Productivity: Be a highly effective, learn and fast-moving organization. Goals.Focus on needs of our consumers, customers and franchise partners.Get out into the market and listen, observe and learn.Possess a world view.Focus on execution in the marketplace every day.Be insatiable curious.Critical evaluate each element and show how it is in line with the background information This company’s mission statement provides a clear definition of what the company would like to do for the world. The company would like to inspire us and bring out the passion in us, while we are having fun consuming their products. In the article, State Your Business, it was  stated, â€Å"†¦.having a mission doesn’t guarantee winning. But not having one invariable spurs the opposite.† (Welch, 2008) The Coca-Cola Company wanted to do all they could to guarantee winning for their company so they created a strong winning mission statement.The vision statement tells us the vision this company has for the world. This statement paints a clear picture of what this company would like to do for the world through their merchandise. QuickMBA states, â€Å"The vision describes some milestone that the firm will reach in the future†¦.† (QuickMBA.com, 1999-2010).Values define and dictate the standards and rules of an organization, without them, there are no standards for the organization. â€Å"Core values will not change†¦.† (QUICKMBA.com, 1999-2010).If a company does not have any goals, how would you know the obje ctive of the company? Unlike the line used in the article from Fast Company.com, â€Å"Who needs a long-term strategy when everyone’s goal is simply to ‘get big fast’?† (Hammonds, 2007) Unlike this article, The Coca-Cola Company did set some clear goals for their company. This company’s goals tell us exactly what they would like to do for the world.Show how each of the elements account for the stakeholder’s interests All of the elements account for the stakeholder’s interests. Each of the four elements clearly defines the objectives of this company, telling us what the company would like to accomplish and or achieve. All of the accomplishments will bring success to the company, which equals income or money for the stakeholders. One example is when the goals state,   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Focus on needs of our consumers, customers and franchise partners.†This allows the company to provide the things required by consumer, which will increase pr ofits. Another example is listed in the values, â€Å"Maximize long-term return to shareowners while being mindful of our overall responsibilities.† This value states within its statement how it accounts for the stakeholder’s interests. Actually, each value listed, supports the interest of the stakeholder’s. The mission and vision statements are a map pointing in the  direction of great success for the stakeholder’s.ConclusionIn conclusion, I started this executive summary with a summary of why I support The Coca-Cola Company’s mission, vision, values and goals as they are written on the company’s website. Next, I provided an introduction which stated the order in which this summary would be written. Third, I will identify The Coca-Cola Company’s mission, vision, values and goals.Fourth, I critically evaluated each element for this company and showed how it was in line with the background information for this module and that no chan ges were recommended or required due to the support of the background information. Fifth, I will show how each of the elements accounted for the stakeholder’s interests. Last, I am concluding this executive summary.

CEET(Electronics Electricity) Example

CEET(Electronics Electricity) Example CEET(Electronics& Electricity) – Coursework Example Stepper Motors A typical stepper motor has four coils evenly spaced around the field and a permanent magnet armature. If any combination of field orientation can be generated by controlling which coils are turned on, and which direction current flows through each coil, how many different steps or positions can the motor have per revolution? Considering that the motor has 4 different positions of which will discuss them in order to determine the number of the different steps or rather positions that the motor has in one revolution. The illustration of the 4 frames is shown below where the electromagnets are the 4 inner blocks with 4 teeth each. The electromagnets are numbered, electromagnet 1(one labeled 1 and is blue). The next electromagnet is electromagnet 2 which is next to electromagnet 1 in the clockwise direction. Then, have electromagnet 3 and electromagnet 4 in the same clockwise direction. Fig 1. Figure shows the step motor In position 1, the electromagnet 1 which is on top is turned on; it attracts the teeth on the iron rotor gear (red in color). In this way, the gear teeth are aligned to the electromagnet 1. In position 2, electromagnet 1 is maintained as on while electromagnet 2 is powered making the 2 to be on. This aligns the gear teeth between electromagnet 1and electromagnet 2 resulting to a 45 degrees rotation. In position 3, electromagnet 1 is powered off; this will result to alignment of rotor with the electromagnet 2. This leads to an addition rotation of 45 degrees. The moment electromagnet 1 on top is powered again; the rotor will have undergone 8 steps comprising each of 45 degrees. This is due to the fact, the rotor has to go complete revolution which is 360 degrees; it will thus cover (360/45) = 8 steps to make a complete rotation.For the stepper motor shown in problem 3, draw a pulse train for the four coils that will rotate the motor in eight 45 degree steps all the way around the motor. For each step covered by the coil that transla tes to one pulse so since the coil undergoes 8 steps the pulse train will contain 8 pulses as shown in the diagram below.Fig 2. Shows the 8 pulses of a pulse train for the 4 coilsWork cited1. â€Å"Integrating PC- based logic and motion control† White paper, Entivity I Incorporation2. Benjamin C, Kuo. â€Å"Incremental motion control-step motors and control systems†, 19793. Technical paper â€Å"Introduction to stepper motor system†. Anaheim Automation Corporation4. Douglas W. Jones â€Å"Control of stepping motor. Tutorial† cs.uiowa.edu/~jones/step?types.html5. sdp-si.com/D220/PDF/D220T155.pdf6. Susan Weinscheck, Pamela Jamar, Sarah C. Yeo. â€Å"GUI design essentials†. 19977. Randolph J. Andrews. â€Å"Motion control terminal blocks: the next step in distributed motion control†, Incremental Motion Control Systems and Devices Symposium, 19998. Parker Hannifin Corporation technical paper. â€Å"Linear motor basics†9. www.Compumotor.co m. Retrieved on 19th March 2013.10. www.motorola.com. Retrieved on 19th March 2013.

Content Analysis of The Catbird Seat Essay Example

Content Analysis of The Catbird Seat Essay Example Content Analysis of The Catbird Seat Essay Content Analysis of The Catbird Seat Essay The story can be called as a revenge comedy because of its unexpected and funny ending. Revenge is a word which has a deep meaning behind it. It’s a feeling more than an action. In this story of Mr. Thurber, the feelings of Mr. Martin are touched by giving details step by step. Mr. Martin is a meek, introverted and socially isolated person. His job is his life. He doesn’t have any hobby. He doesn’t even know the popular sports jargons of his time. Such a man can do anything for his job and such workers are preferred by every kind of company. Mrs. Barrows is a smart woman. At least, she looks like one. She is the special adviser of the president Mr. Fitweiler. She is a dominant woman and she is quite obnoxious. Because of her, many co-workers of Mr. Martin were fired from the company. So, something must be done to stop this woman. Otherwise the person who will be fired next will be Mr. Martin. Because of these reasons, Mr. Martin makes up his mind and decides to k ill Mrs. Barrows. This is what we call revenge or vengeance. At this point, I would like to share Eric Sheridan’s craft discussion on the narration of the story. Thurber builds an entire story around this most unexpected action, and in doing so creates dramatic tension in an engaging way, even though we see almost immediately behind Mr. Martin’s curtain. The reader is let in on the secret early on: Martin is not what he appears to be; he is a different man when pushed. His inner trail and conviction of Barrows tell us right away that something is up. But the dramatic tension is built as the detail of Martin’s plan becomes clear. (2002) In the story, the author constantly gives details and small elements of the big picture of the events which are going to happen. This method of the author can be called detective narration. At the beginning of the story Mr. Martin goes to the most crowded cigar store of Broadway, NYC. The readers don’t have any idea about what his n

Autobiographical Sketch Layout

My name is Courtney Marie Bukovitz. I wasn’t named after anyone else as far as I know. I’m 15 years old and was born on July 23, 1996 in Akron, Ohio. I have a few times but never out of Ohio. I don’t have many aunts, uncles or cousins, but the ones I do have live in a different state. My mom has 4 siblings and my dad has 1. Me on the other hand, I have 3 half siblings and 3 step siblings, I’m the youngest child. I honestly despise watching sports but I love to play them. What I usually do is hang out with my friends and doodle random pictures. The last time I went on vacation was in November, 2012 to Florida to visit family. Anytime I’ve went on vacation I’ve always stayed at my aunt or grandma’s house, so I never really stayed in a Hotel. My favorite kind of music is mainly old rock like Nirvana or alternative such as A Day To Remember. Their music is about real life situations and ideas, rather than fake love stories, lust and drugs. If I could describe myself in 3 words it’d be creative, spontaneous and independent. The high school I have attended is North High School. I don’t really have a favorite subject, but my weakness class is Biology. My strength class is History and anything that has to do with the visual arts. The class I dislike the most would be study hall, I don’t like study hall just because I find it useless. It may provide a child with the time to study but to me it’s a waste of time. My plan is to graduate from North High School in 2014 and then go to college to study to be a private investigator. I’m into the discovery of truth and justice and I’m someone who won’t stop until I achieve the truth.

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Leadership - Essay Example The manner in which he comes into contact with his sub-ordinates and even his peers is something that demands a change within his character for the boost in the environment which can only be regarded as a positive one. I believe such tactics of authoritative leadership use a great deal of negative power and influence and hence the end result is one of failure and distress for just about everyone in the organization. The employees start leaving their jobs because they feel they have been hard done by, by the leader as well as given constant negative vibes which have more or less affected the workplace in a very appalling manner. Thus morally these tactics have meant problems for the people and hence there would be no doubt in stating that such authoritative leadership regimes are wrong in all ways and means. These must be avoided in order to secure better productivity levels within the ranks of the organization. Effective leadership requires that the leader becomes a role model for his sub-ordinates and peers and gives exemplary performance under trying circumstances. This is a hallmark of effective leadership since its basis comes about with the significance of proper attention towards detail and the adequate handling of people at the workplace. Also an effective leader does not go back on his words and shows to his fellow colleagues that he puts his mouth where his actions speak louder than words. His practical demonstration of work ethos is thus manifested in the real sense of the word. Effective leadership requires commanding dignity within the sub-ordinates and the top bosses in the organization. It also means that the employees are treated with respect and given the space that they richly deserve. Similarly effective leadership comes about in full circle when the other departments within the same organization take such leadership domains as the role model and try to implement the same within their ranks as well. This is indeed a criterion

Marketing Research for a Company in Dubai Paper

Marketing for a Company in Dubai - Research Paper Example The marketing management department of Masafi generally divided its target audiences into three different market segmentation, such as psychographic segmentation, demographic segmentation and geographic segmentation. In terms of psychographic segmentation, the organization has targeted kids, young adults and women of all ages. The fresh fruit juices are effectively popular among the teenagers and kids. On the other hand, high quality mineral water bottle and fruit flavoured drinks are highly popular among the young college students, young office executives, middle aged men and women, and busy office executives. These products are of high quality. Therefore, it helps the marketing management department to conduct effective psychographic market segmentation for the target customers. In terms of demographic market segmentation, the organization generally targets both men and women for their differentiated products. Facial tissues are quite popular among the young ladies. On the other hand, high quality mineral water bottles are significantly preferred by the both men and women of all ages. In terms of income distribution, people of middle class and upper middle class income group are the major target customers as the o0rganization has developed cost based pricing strategy for the products (Ferrell, 2012). Last but not the least; the organization also has conducted geographic segmentation for its target customers in the developed marketing strategies.

The growth of car industry in a developing country - CHINA, USA and UK Essay

The growth of car industry in a developing country - CHINA, USA and UK - Essay Example Two phases are Literature review and an original research. In original research, a questionnaire would help in supporting a few findings. Main focus of this research would be on the Literature Review that would actually help in 80% of the recommendations and findings. In the last, crux of all the findings would be discussed that would also identify the fuel influence so that to know if the petroleum is a restricted reserve and gasoline will perhaps develop into a very luxurious liveliness foundation. The assessment indicates the practicability of the UK car development in the sequential conditions and at in present creation forecasts about its prospective expansion trends. The literature review touches the comprehensive car industrialized industry to identify the causes of the decline in the United Kingdom car industry as well as the strengths and weaknesses of British car manufacturers. The methods for investigate are based on the examination of secondary data appropriate to the cla ssification of the trends in the UK automobile industrialized. Conclusions are made about the car-industrialized outputs in the UK and the anticipated ricochet in the production levels. Automotive production is the mounting at an unparalleled momentum in Asian district in the globe, mainly due to a saturating automotive manufacturing of a western world. China, India, & ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) countries are the main dynamic markets for Asian automotive trade. Asian Automotive Industry Outlook (2007 2011) testimony provides a purpose scrutiny on Asian Automotive industry to investigate the prospective opportunities and challenges faced by the production (Wire, 2008). The automotive trade designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the worlds motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, counting cars and profitable vehicles were fashioned global (OICA, 2007). In 2007, a entirety of 71.9 million innovative automobiles were sold

Corporate social responsibility Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Corporate social responsibility - Essay Example al, 2005). Activities of Corporately Socially Responsible (CSR) Firms: Coca cola international claims itself as a socially responsible multinational firm. It is currently operating in dozens of countries while honoring its commitment of being CSR efficient. As a sure sign of success not only has it been able to capture and sustain a remarkable 49% of market share in beverage market around the world , rather the increasing revenues have consistently shown a better picture throughout (Cokecsr, 2011). Following are the activities claimed by coca cola as their Corporate Social Responsibilities. Energy Efficiency and Climate Concerns: The Company claims at reducing the carbon emissions throughout the value chain and making their processes more energy efficient (cokecsr, 2011). Emissions of harmful materials are carefully managed. Water Stewardship: Water consumption for running the operations is strictly need based; there is no excessive usage or wastage of drinking water. Water sustainab ility is ensured during operations at coke plants; what is consumed is returned to the environment (cokecsr, 2011). ... Community, Health and Employee Safety: The corporate makes significant investments to ensure a protected community, improved health and employee welfare; enabling the company to sustain its remarkable position as a world leader in beverage market (cokecsr, 2011). Factors to Enhance CSR Image: Companies employ different tactics to improve their CSR image in the eyes of their consumers, it is because they are highly concerned with the social needs of their consumers. The augmented exposure of customers to environment and social issues and crisis is a huge potential threat for large companies. To resolve these supposed threats from customers, large companies take specific initiatives. The basic purpose is to create a higher degree of customer satisfaction. If the society is growing, the environment is protected and people are healthy then it is quite certain that the customers will be satisfied. Media marketing or advertisements are the main aid to generalize the community about corpora te social responsibilities. The investments which a company makes in a community are the ones that really reap the benefits for the company in the longer run. It may include educational investments, health care initiatives and eliminating social evils from the society (Armstrong, 1977). Every company, that employs a CSR policy, publishes an annual report which covers the yearly operations, initiatives and achievements of the company (ckecsr, 2011). This coverage provides a complete picture of how the firm’s projects have turned out. For instance, if investments have been made in long term projects which are beneficial for the firm’s associations; this will create

Importance of the Oregon Trail Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Importance of the Oregon Trail - Essay Example In 1846 a compromise was worked out with Britain and a treaty signed that gave the United States rights to the land south of the 49th parallel and Britain the lan north fom 49th to 54th 40'. The Whitmans were instrumental in the establishment of the Oregon Trail. Mrs. Narcissa Whitman and Mrs. Eliza Spalding demonstrated that women could make the overland journey. Dr. Marcus Whitman strongly promoted the ability of wagons to complete the journey. The Whitmans' mission at Waiilatpu provided necessary aid and supplies to the weary travelers. Narcissa and Eliza became the first white women to make the journey across the continent. Articles about this trip appeared in eastern newspapers. These two women became role models for the women and families who would eventually travel the Oregon Trail. Ironically, although the Whitmans helped to establish the Oregon Trail, they themselves were not able to bring their wagons to their mission site. Even though his initial attempt failed, Marcus never lost faith that wagons would eventually make the trip. In 1842 Marcus traveled east to speak directly with members of the American Board about decisions they had made concerning the Oregon Country missions. Marcus traveled home with the large wagon train of 1843, "The Great Migration." Under his guidance this wagon train became the first to take their wagons all the way to the Columbia River. Following in the footsteps of the fur trappers, a number of missionary families ventured into the Oregon Territory by overland routes in the 1830s for the purpose of ministering to the native tribes. Marcus and Narcissa Whitman established their mission in the Walla Walla Valley in 1836, an endeavor that eventually ended in tragedy. Early missionaries were important in providing information and assistance to later migrating families. The Oregon Trail was not a single path to the West, but a series of trails leading to the Columbia River and the Willamette Valley. The point of origination was in Missouri, frequently from Independence and sometimes from Westport and St. Joseph. The main trail pushed across present-day Kansas and Nebraska, following the North Platt River to Fort Laramie. This journey was a real test of the settlers' perseverance. Threats were posed by severe weather conditions, both extreme heat and cold; by disease with cholera a particular concern; by deprivation since supplies of both food and water were uncertain; and by other natural disasters such as landslides, flooding, and prairie fires. The most intense use of the trail was in the mid-1840s, but wagon trains continued to use this conduit for another 10 years. The coming of the railroads to the West ended the importance of the Oregon Trail as a major transportation route by wagon train. REFERENCES: Hixon, Adrietta Applegate, On to Oregon: 1973, Ye Galleon Press Lee, Daniel and Joseph H. Frost, Ten Years in Oregon: [1844, New York] 1968, Ye Galleon Press, Fairfield,

The growth of car industry in a developing country - CHINA, USA and UK Essay

The growth of car industry in a developing country - CHINA, USA and UK - Essay Example Two phases are Literature review and an original research. In original research, a questionnaire would help in supporting a few findings. Main focus of this research would be on the Literature Review that would actually help in 80% of the recommendations and findings. In the last, crux of all the findings would be discussed that would also identify the fuel influence so that to know if the petroleum is a restricted reserve and gasoline will perhaps develop into a very luxurious liveliness foundation. The assessment indicates the practicability of the UK car development in the sequential conditions and at in present creation forecasts about its prospective expansion trends. The literature review touches the comprehensive car industrialized industry to identify the causes of the decline in the United Kingdom car industry as well as the strengths and weaknesses of British car manufacturers. The methods for investigate are based on the examination of secondary data appropriate to the cla ssification of the trends in the UK automobile industrialized. Conclusions are made about the car-industrialized outputs in the UK and the anticipated ricochet in the production levels. Automotive production is the mounting at an unparalleled momentum in Asian district in the globe, mainly due to a saturating automotive manufacturing of a western world. China, India, & ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) countries are the main dynamic markets for Asian automotive trade. Asian Automotive Industry Outlook (2007 2011) testimony provides a purpose scrutiny on Asian Automotive industry to investigate the prospective opportunities and challenges faced by the production (Wire, 2008). The automotive trade designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the worlds motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, counting cars and profitable vehicles were fashioned global (OICA, 2007). In 2007, a entirety of 71.9 million innovative automobiles were sold

Importance of the Oregon Trail Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Importance of the Oregon Trail - Essay Example In 1846 a compromise was worked out with Britain and a treaty signed that gave the United States rights to the land south of the 49th parallel and Britain the lan north fom 49th to 54th 40'. The Whitmans were instrumental in the establishment of the Oregon Trail. Mrs. Narcissa Whitman and Mrs. Eliza Spalding demonstrated that women could make the overland journey. Dr. Marcus Whitman strongly promoted the ability of wagons to complete the journey. The Whitmans' mission at Waiilatpu provided necessary aid and supplies to the weary travelers. Narcissa and Eliza became the first white women to make the journey across the continent. Articles about this trip appeared in eastern newspapers. These two women became role models for the women and families who would eventually travel the Oregon Trail. Ironically, although the Whitmans helped to establish the Oregon Trail, they themselves were not able to bring their wagons to their mission site. Even though his initial attempt failed, Marcus never lost faith that wagons would eventually make the trip. In 1842 Marcus traveled east to speak directly with members of the American Board about decisions they had made concerning the Oregon Country missions. Marcus traveled home with the large wagon train of 1843, "The Great Migration." Under his guidance this wagon train became the first to take their wagons all the way to the Columbia River. Following in the footsteps of the fur trappers, a number of missionary families ventured into the Oregon Territory by overland routes in the 1830s for the purpose of ministering to the native tribes. Marcus and Narcissa Whitman established their mission in the Walla Walla Valley in 1836, an endeavor that eventually ended in tragedy. Early missionaries were important in providing information and assistance to later migrating families. The Oregon Trail was not a single path to the West, but a series of trails leading to the Columbia River and the Willamette Valley. The point of origination was in Missouri, frequently from Independence and sometimes from Westport and St. Joseph. The main trail pushed across present-day Kansas and Nebraska, following the North Platt River to Fort Laramie. This journey was a real test of the settlers' perseverance. Threats were posed by severe weather conditions, both extreme heat and cold; by disease with cholera a particular concern; by deprivation since supplies of both food and water were uncertain; and by other natural disasters such as landslides, flooding, and prairie fires. The most intense use of the trail was in the mid-1840s, but wagon trains continued to use this conduit for another 10 years. The coming of the railroads to the West ended the importance of the Oregon Trail as a major transportation route by wagon train. REFERENCES: Hixon, Adrietta Applegate, On to Oregon: 1973, Ye Galleon Press Lee, Daniel and Joseph H. Frost, Ten Years in Oregon: [1844, New York] 1968, Ye Galleon Press, Fairfield,

Drug Abuse Essay Example for Free

Drug Abuse Essay 1.0 Topic and Chosen aspect Drug abuse among teenagers is the chosen aspect for this report. Drug abuse is defined as the excessive use of drugs without medicine justification. It is reported that 50% of teenagers have abused a drug of some kind (Teendrugrehabs n.d.). 1.1 Critical evaluation of findings One of the main factors of drug abuse among teenagers is due to peer pressure. Based on statistics 80% of teenagers are affected by peer pressure (Wallace 2011). Wanting to be accepted by their peers, they are willing to do anything. Their desire to be socially accepted will cause them to be influence by their peers. Thus, this will lead them to the abuse of drugs to make things more exciting and not left out. Besides that, it is very hard to say â€Å"NO!† to their peers. Furthermore, another reason for teenagers to be easily involved in drug abuse is due to the easy access to drugs. 54% of the students of private high schools reported that drugs are accessible in their schools while 61% of the public high school students state that their schools are â€Å"drug-infested† (Pahuriray 2012). As drugs can be easily obtained everywhere. 2.0 Processes Various steps were undertaken to attain the sources needed for the report. However, a lot of the sources from the internet is too vague and the statistics are already outdated.